Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of several powertrain types for cars and buses in France for two driving cycles: “worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure” cycle and urban cycle

Bouter, Anne; Hache, Emmanuel; Ternel, Cyprien; Beauchet, Sandra · 2020 · Crossref

DOI: 10.1007/s11367-020-01756-2

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Summary

This study conducts a comparative environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of various powertrain technologies for midsize passenger cars and buses in France, aiming to evaluate the environmental trade-offs between conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles and electrified alternatives. Motivated by stringent EU CO2 reduction targets and the risk that massive electrification might displace environmental impacts from greenhouse gas emissions to other burdens like particulate matter or resource depletion, the research questions whether a blanket electrification strategy is optimal. The study seeks to provide a transparent, multicriteria analysis that accounts for the entire vehicle and energy carrier life cycles, rather than focusing solely on tailpipe emissions. The methodology adheres to ISO standards, defining the functional unit as the transportation of one passenger over one kilometer. The analysis covers seven midsize car architectures: gasoline ICE, diesel ICE, mild hybrid (MHEV), full hybrid (HEV), plug-in hybrid (PHEV), battery electric vehicle (EV), and an EV with extended capacity (EV+). It also includes bus comparisons. Data were derived from manufacturer specifications, IFPEN expert knowledge, and the Ecoinvent database. Energy consumption was simulated using IFPEN vehicle simulators for two driving cycles: the Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP) and an urban cycle. The study modeled the well-to-wheel energy production and the full vehicle life cycle, including production, use, and end-of-life recycling scenarios based on French regulatory frameworks. A sensitivity analysis was performed using a European electricity mix to assess geographical dependency. Results indicate that EVs and PHEVs offer the highest climate change mitigation potential, provided the electricity mix is low-carbon and PHEVs are operated with fully charged batteries. Under these optimal conditions, PHEVs can outperform EVs in terms of carbon footprint. Conversely, PHEVs operating solely on their thermic engine perform worst regarding climate change indicators. Electric buses were identified as the most effective solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in urban traffic conditions. However, the study found that electrified powertrains perform worse than conventional thermic vehicles regarding other environmental indicators, specifically particulate matter emissions. The findings highlight that environmental performance is highly sensitive to the electricity charging mix and driving conditions. The significance of this research lies in its demonstration that electrification should not be driven exclusively by climate change indicators, as this may lead to unintended environmental drawbacks in other categories. The authors conclude that public policies must be adapted to local contexts, particularly the regional electricity mix, and that a multicriteria LCA approach is essential for accurately assessing the environmental impacts of transportation technologies. This provides a robust framework for policymakers and consumers to make informed decisions that balance carbon reduction with broader environmental sustainability.

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