Prospective memory errors in everyday life: does instruction matter?

Haas, Maximilian; Zuber, Sascha; Kliegel, Matthias; Ballhausen, Nicola · 2020 · Crossref

DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2019.1707227

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Summary

This study investigates the prevalence of prospective memory (PM) errors in everyday life, specifically examining whether age and diary instructions influence error reporting. While PM is critical for daily independence, particularly in older adults, previous research has largely relied on artificial laboratory tasks or naturalistic tasks with experimenter instructions. This created a gap in understanding the natural occurrence of PM errors compared to retrospective memory (RM) and other cognitive failures, as well as whether the "age-PM paradox"—where older adults perform better in naturalistic settings than in labs—holds true for spontaneous error reporting. Additionally, it was unclear if focusing participants' attention on specific error types via instructions would alter the frequency of reported PM errors. To address these questions, Haas et al. (2020) conducted a five-day diary study with 64 younger adults (mean age 22.6) and 64 older adults (mean age 70.5). Participants were randomly assigned to one of three between-subjects instruction conditions: reporting only PM errors, reporting any memory errors (PM or RM), or reporting any cognitive errors (including attention and executive dysfunction). Participants recorded their daily failures in paper diaries, which were subsequently coded by independent raters into PM, RM, and other cognitive categories. The study analyzed both the quantitative frequency of errors and the qualitative content of PM failures, such as interpersonal intentions or general tasks. The results demonstrated that PM errors were the most frequent type of everyday cognitive failure for both age groups, constituting over 54% of all reported errors regardless of the instruction given. Contrary to findings in retrospective memory research, the type of instruction did not significantly affect the number of PM errors reported. Younger adults reported a significantly higher absolute number of PM errors than older adults, yet the relative proportion of PM errors compared to other error types did not differ significantly between age groups. Qualitatively, the most common PM errors involved general non-social intentions, such as grocery shopping or domestic chores. Notably, older adults reported significantly fewer errors related to interpersonal intentions (e.g., calling a friend) than younger adults, a finding consistent with socioemotional selectivity theory, which suggests older adults prioritize social relationships and may exert greater effort in socially relevant contexts. These findings confirm that PM errors dominate everyday memory failures in both young and old populations, supporting the notion that everyday PM is relatively spared from age-related decline compared to laboratory measures. The study highlights that the robustness of PM in daily life is not an artifact of specific instructions, as PM errors remained the primary failure type even when participants were asked to report broader cognitive issues. The reduced interpersonal errors in older adults suggest that motivational factors and social prioritization may protect against PM failures in socially significant domains. This research provides empirical evidence for the age-PM paradox in a naturalistic, bottom-up context and underscores the importance of considering motivational and social contexts when assessing memory aging.

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• prospective memory interruptions