Finding the answer in space: the mental whiteboard hypothesis on serial order in working memory

Abrahamse, Elger; van Dijck, Jean‐Philippe; Majerus, Steve; Fias, Wim · 2014 · OpenAlex-citations

DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00932

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Summary

This theoretical paper proposes the "mental whiteboard hypothesis" to explain how serial order is maintained in working memory (WM). The authors address a gap in existing position marker models, which successfully account for empirical data but lack specific cognitive or neural mechanisms for the "position markers" that bind items to their sequence. The hypothesis posits that serial order WM is grounded in the spatial attention system. Specifically, it argues that position markers are coordinates within an internal, spatially defined system; internal spatial attention searches through this representation; and retrieval corresponds to selection by spatial attention. This framework suggests that individuals mentally arrange items in a spatial continuum, such as left-to-right, analogous to writing on a physical whiteboard. The authors support this hypothesis by synthesizing behavioral, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging evidence. Behavioral studies cited demonstrate that retrieving early items from a WM sequence facilitates left-hand responses, while later items facilitate right-hand responses, even when stimuli are centrally presented. Furthermore, processing later items directs internal attention to the right, and exogenous spatial cues can facilitate or hinder serial retrieval. The hypothesis also explains phenomena like the distance effect (difficulty distinguishing nearby items) and transposition errors through spatial attention interference. The authors argue that this spatial coding is flexible, potentially adapting to vertical axes or reading directions, and is distinct from temporal stamps or numerical magnitude coding. Regarding neural substrates, the paper identifies the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and the hippocampus as key candidates. The IPS is highlighted as a hub linking verbal and visuospatial STM load with spatial selective attention, with anterior IPS regions specifically associated with serial order coding. The hippocampus is proposed to support spatially defined serial coding, extending its traditional role in long-term episodic memory and navigation to short-term maintenance. The authors note that primate studies showing SNARC-like effects without numerical magnitude experience further support the primacy of spatial coding over numerical or temporal mechanisms. The significance of this work lies in providing a parsimonious framework that unifies general attention-based accounts of WM with specific serial order models. By defining position markers as spatial coordinates, the hypothesis bridges the conceptual gap between broad WM theories and detailed serial order mechanisms. It offers testable predictions for future research, including the impact of reading direction on spatial coding and the neural networks underlying internal spatial attention. This approach allows for a more integrated understanding of how the brain maintains the order of multiple items, crucial for complex cognitive tasks like language and reasoning.

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• working memory