Multi-Vehicle Simulation in Urban Automated Driving: Technical Implementation and Added Benefit
DOI: 10.3390/info11050272
archive: archived pipeline: cataloged verified
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Summary
This study addresses the technical challenges and added benefits of conducting multi-vehicle simulations involving an automated vehicle (AV) and a human-driven vehicle. The research is motivated by the need to investigate simultaneous interactions between an AV’s internal human–machine interface (aHMI), which communicates with the passenger, and its external HMI (eHMI), which signals intent to surrounding road users. Such dual communication can only be effectively studied in multi-vehicle settings, particularly in complex urban scenarios like road bottlenecks where right-of-way negotiation is critical. The authors aim to determine appropriate synchronization methods for these simulations and evaluate whether multi-vehicle setups offer advantages over traditional single-driver simulations. To achieve this, the researchers implemented a multi-vehicle simulation using two connected driving simulators: one for the AV and one for a manual vehicle. The experimental scenario involved a road bottleneck with a double-parked vehicle, requiring the AV and an oncoming human driver to negotiate passage. The technical implementation focused on ensuring synchronicity through a two-stage process. First, basic synchronization was achieved using traffic light controls to compensate for large time differences, ensuring both vehicles arrived at the interaction zone simultaneously. Second, detail synchronization was tested using four different methods to align the AV’s longitudinal control with the human driver’s behavior: controlling speed difference, controlling distance difference to the bottleneck, transmitting the manual vehicle’s acceleration directly, or transmitting pedal positions. These methods were evaluated using synthetic speed profiles representing offensive, neutral, and defensive driving styles. The results indicated that using traffic lights for basic synchronization combined with distance control for detail synchronization provided acceptable synchronicity. When comparing the multi-vehicle simulation to a previously conducted single-driver simulation, participants exhibited similar passing times, suggesting comparable behavioral outcomes in standard encounters. However, the multi-vehicle simulation demonstrated a lower crash rate during an automation failure scenario, where the AV initially signaled to yield but then proceeded through the bottleneck despite oncoming traffic. This finding suggests that the presence of a real human driver in the simulation leads to more realistic and safer interaction dynamics compared to programmed or single-driver setups. The study concludes that the proposed technical implementation is an appropriate solution for conducting multi-vehicle simulations with automated vehicles. Furthermore, it establishes that multi-vehicle simulations offer a distinct added benefit when more than one human agent influences the interaction within a scenario. By enabling the investigation of simultaneous aHMI and eHMI effects, this approach enhances the validity of research into human–machine interaction in automated driving, particularly in complex urban environments where social negotiation and safety are paramount.
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| Stage | Outcome | Tool | Model | Prompt | Attempts | Completed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| discover | success | Crossref | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-17 |
| archive | success | openalex | — | — | 5 | 2026-06-25 |
| extract | success | cached | — | — | 2 | 2026-06-26 |
| clean | success | clean | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| chunk | success | chunk | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| embed | success | embed | Qwen/Qwen3-Embedding-8B | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| promote | success | — | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-17 |
| summarize | success | llm | qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant | summ-v5 | 1 | 2026-06-26 |
| tag | success | vector_similarity | — | — | 6 | 2026-06-18 |
| verify | success | — | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-26 |
Summary generated by qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant on 2026-06-26; verification: verified.
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