Make it worth it: Effort-reward modulations on reinforcement-learning and prediction-error signaling across adolescence

Kramer, Anne‐Wil; Krabbendam, Lydia; Schaaf, Jessica V.; Huizenga, Hilde M.; van Duijvenvoorde, Anna C. K. · 2025 · OpenAlex-citations

DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101559

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Summary

This study investigates how rewards modulate reinforcement learning and neural prediction-error (PE) signaling in adolescents, specifically examining whether high rewards can compensate for high cognitive effort demands. Motivated by the Expected Value of Control theory, which posits that rewards signal the value of engaging cognitive control, the authors sought to identify the neurobiological mechanisms driving effort allocation during adolescence, a period characterized by heightened reward sensitivity and ongoing maturation of cognitive control systems. The researchers employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in a sample of 146 participants aged 13–25 years. Participants completed a probabilistic reinforcement learning task where they learned associations between pseudo-words and outcomes. The experimental design manipulated two factors: effort demands (low vs. high, defined by learning two vs. four word pairs simultaneously) and reward levels (low vs. high, defined by earning 1 vs. 10 points per correct choice). Behavioral performance was analyzed using generalized linear mixed models, while neural activity was modeled using an extended Rescorla-Wagner reinforcement learning model to estimate trial-by-trial prediction errors. These computational estimates served as regressors in fMRI analyses focusing on regions of interest including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and striatum. Additionally, participants’ subjective value of effort was assessed via an effort-discounting task. Results demonstrated that higher reward levels significantly enhanced learning performance, particularly under high-effort conditions. This compensatory effect of reward was more pronounced in younger adolescents and in individuals with a lower subjective value of effort, who perceive tasks as more demanding. Neuroimaging data revealed that the dACC played a critical role in signaling the interaction between reward and effort. Specifically, greater rewards strengthened PE coding in the dACC, especially during high-effort tasks. This neural modulation was also more robust in younger adolescents and those with lower subjective value of effort. In contrast, the vmPFC and striatum showed standard reward-related PE signaling but did not exhibit the same specific reward-by-effort interaction patterns observed in the dACC. The findings support the hypothesis that rewards facilitate cognitive control engagement by offsetting perceived effort costs, with the dACC serving as a key hub for integrating cost-benefit information. The study highlights developmental and individual differences in this mechanism, suggesting that younger adolescents and those who find effort more costly rely more heavily on reward signals to mobilize cognitive resources. These insights provide a neurocognitive basis for understanding adolescent motivation and suggest that strategic use of rewards could support effort allocation in high-demand learning environments during this developmental period.

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• mental demand