Language experience influences performance on the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery: A cluster analysis

Chung-Fat-Yim, Ashley; Hayakawa, Sayuri; Marian, Viorica · 2025 · Crossref

DOI: 10.1057/s41599-025-04360-7

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Summary

This study addresses the inconsistency in research regarding the cognitive effects of bilingualism, attributing conflicting results to the arbitrary categorization of participants based on language experience. To resolve this, the authors employed a data-driven approach using cluster analysis to identify naturally occurring subgroups of bilinguals based on age of acquisition and proficiency in their first and second languages. The research aimed to determine how these specific linguistic profiles influence performance on various cognitive domains, including executive function, memory, language, and processing speed. The study analyzed data from 169 adult participants (ages 18–36) compiled from four existing datasets. Participants included 29 monolinguals and 140 bilinguals with varying proficiencies in languages such as Spanish, Korean, and French. Language experience was measured using the Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q), which assessed proficiency, age of acquisition, manner of acquisition, current exposure, and immersion. Cognitive performance was evaluated using the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery, which includes subtests for inhibitory control (Flanker task), cognitive flexibility (Dimensional Change Card Sort), verbal working memory (List Sorting), episodic memory (Picture Sequence Memory), processing speed, and English vocabulary/reading. Cluster analysis identified four distinct bilingual subgroups: early-unbalanced, early-balanced, late-balanced, and late-unbalanced. Results indicated that language experience significantly influenced specific cognitive domains. Early-balanced and early-unbalanced bilinguals scored higher than late-unbalanced bilinguals on measures of cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control. Conversely, late-unbalanced bilinguals outperformed early-balanced bilinguals on the verbal working memory subtest. No significant differences were found among the groups for processing speed, episodic memory, or English vocabulary. These findings suggest that the timing and balance of language acquisition have distinct, non-uniform effects on cognitive abilities. The significance of this study lies in its demonstration of the utility of unsupervised machine learning algorithms, such as cluster analysis, for capturing the real-world variability in bilingual language experience. By moving beyond arbitrary thresholds, the study reveals that different bilingual experiences shape a wide range of cognitive abilities differently. Specifically, early and balanced bilingualism appears to enhance executive control functions like inhibition and flexibility, while late and unbalanced profiles may offer advantages in verbal working memory. This approach provides a more nuanced framework for understanding the relationship between bilingualism and cognition, suggesting that the cognitive consequences of bilingualism are not uniform but depend heavily on the specific nature of an individual's language history.

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• cognitive capacity variation