Age differences in executive functioning across the lifespan: The role of verbalization in task preparation

Kray, Jutta; Eber, Jutta; Lindenberger, Ulman · 2004 · OpenAlex-citations

DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.001

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Summary

This study investigates age-related changes in executive functioning across the lifespan, specifically examining how verbalization during task preparation influences performance in children, younger adults, and older adults. Motivated by the observation that executive functions often follow an inverted U-shaped developmental trajectory—improving in childhood and declining in oldage—the authors sought to determine whether inner speech serves as a modulator of these changes. The research aimed to separate two components of executive control: the ability to select task sets and the ability to switch between them, while assessing how verbal prompts (compatible, incompatible, or irrelevant) affect these processes compared to motor or no secondary tasks. The experimental design involved 48 participants divided into three age groups: children (mean age 9.4), younger adults (mean age 21.5), and older adults (mean age 65.3). Participants performed a task-switching paradigm using pictures of animals and fruits, requiring them to categorize stimuli by object type or color. During the preparation interval between cues and targets, participants were instructed to either read aloud task-compatible words, task-incompatible words, irrelevant words, perform a motor response, or do nothing. This design allowed the researchers to measure set-selection costs (the cost of maintaining multiple task sets) and switch costs (the cost of switching between sets), as well as the specific effects of verbal facilitation and interference. The results revealed an inverted U-shaped developmental function for set-selection costs, with children and older adults showing significantly higher costs than younger adults. However, no significant age differences were found for switch costs. Crucially, the impact of verbalization varied by age group. Older adults generally benefited from verbalizations during task preparation, showing reduced costs compared to conditions without verbal prompts. In contrast, children showed facilitation only when verbal prompts were task-compatible, whereas older adults experienced stronger interference when prompts were task-incompatible. Children and younger adults exhibited greater verbal dual-task costs than older adults, suggesting that older adults utilize inner speech more effectively as a compensatory mechanism. These findings indicate that inner speech plays a distinct role in executive functioning across the lifespan. While children rely on verbalization primarily for compatible task guidance, older adults appear to use inner speech to maintain task goals and mitigate age-related declines in executive control. The study concludes that verbal processes are not merely supportive but are critical modulators of developmental changes in executive functioning, offering a potential compensatory strategy for aging populations. This highlights the importance of considering language-based strategies in understanding cognitive aging and development.

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Topics

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• task switching
• executive function