Cascaded fractional order control for load frequency stability of power systems integrated with renewable energy and electric vehicles.

Naz M; Paracha, KN; Gulzar, MM; Habib S; Bareer B; Farhan M · 2026 · PubMed Central

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-026-46114-8

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Summary

This study addresses the challenge of maintaining load frequency stability in modern power systems characterized by high renewable energy penetration and declining system inertia. The integration of intermittent sources like solar and wind, alongside the use of electric vehicles (EVs) as distributed energy storage, introduces dynamic complexities that traditional control strategies struggle to manage. The authors propose a novel hybrid cascaded controller, combining a fractional order proportional integral derivative (FOPID) controller with a tilt fractional order integral derivative (TFOID) controller, to enhance frequency regulation in a symmetrical two-area power grid. This architecture aims to leverage the tuning flexibility of fractional order dynamics and the damping capabilities of tilt-based structures to improve disturbance rejection and robustness. The experimental design involves a multi-source power system model incorporating conventional generation units (reheat-based thermal, hydro, and gas plants), renewable sources (solar and wind), and EVs equipped with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities. The controller parameters are optimally tuned using the golden jackal optimization (GJO) algorithm, with the integral time square error (ITSE) serving as the performance metric. The study evaluates the controller’s performance under various operating conditions, including step, multistep, and random load perturbations, as well as stochastic renewable behavior. Crucially, the robustness of the proposed scheme is tested against communication delays, system parameter variations, and varying levels of renewable penetration without requiring re-optimization of controller gains. The results demonstrate that the GJO-tuned cascaded FOPID-TFOID controller significantly outperforms existing methods in terms of dynamic response and stability. It effectively dampens local load fluctuations and accelerates system recovery under diverse disturbances. Statistical analysis, Bode-based stability assessments, and computational complexity evaluations validate the supremacy of the proposed approach. Notably, the controller maintains consistent performance and robustness across all tested scenarios, including nonlinear constraints like generation rate constraints, without the need for repeated parameter tuning. This contrasts with many existing cascaded controllers that require retuning when system dynamics deviate from nominal conditions. The significance of this work lies in its contribution to scalable and resilient load frequency control strategies for modern grids. By successfully integrating EVs as flexible resources and employing a robust, high-dimensional control structure, the study offers a practical solution for mitigating the instability caused by renewable intermittency and reduced inertia. The findings suggest that cascaded fractional order controllers, when optimized with advanced metaheuristic algorithms, can provide superior frequency regulation and operational consistency, supporting the transition toward low-carbon, electrified power systems.

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