Neural substrates of executive function development in children under three: a mini-review of recent advances

Varghese, Rhea; Fiske, Abigail; Holmboe, Karla · 2026 · Crossref

DOI: 10.3389/fdpys.2026.1752676

archive: archived pipeline: cataloged verified

Get this paper ↗ (DOI — opens at the source; we link to it, we don't host it)

Summary

This mini-review updates the understanding of the neural substrates underlying executive function (EF) development in children under three years of age, building on prior work from 2019. The authors address the gap in knowledge regarding how core EF domains—inhibitory control (IC), working memory (WM), and cognitive flexibility (CF)—emerge during infancy and toddlerhood. Motivated by the increased availability of infant-friendly neuroimaging techniques, the review synthesizes recent empirical findings to map cortical network specialization and structural maturation during this critical developmental window. The authors conducted a systematic literature search across four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and PsycINFO) for peer-reviewed articles published between January 2019 and July 2025. Eligibility criteria required studies to employ neuroimaging methods (fNIRS, fMRI, sMRI, dMRI, DTI, or EEG) and focus on typically developing children under 36 months. After screening, 21 primary studies were selected for substantive discussion, categorized by EF domain, prefrontal cortex maturation, and functional connectivity. The review identifies the frontal and parietal cortices as shared neural substrates for all three EF domains, though recruitment patterns vary by age and task. For IC, activation shifts from right-lateralized dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and parietal regions at 10 months to more widespread, bilateral frontal and parietal areas by 16 months, eventually converging on adult-like right inferior frontal cortex activation by preschool age. WM development involves early right DLPFC and posterior temporal activation that decreases over the first year, shifting toward the left anterior intraparietal sulcus. CF neural precursors, such as the "flexible club" of regions including the DLPFC and temporoparietal junction, are evident by age two, though functional connectivity links remain complex and age-dependent. Structural findings indicate that lower peak cortical thickness in the frontal lobe and reduced early myelination are associated with better later EF performance, suggesting that efficient pruning and gradual network refinement support cognitive development. Additionally, stronger frontoparietal functional connectivity predicts concurrent EF skills, while slower connectivity growth in infancy may benefit later outcomes. The authors conclude that the first three years constitute a crucial period for EF development, characterized by a transition from broad, diffuse neural activation to specialized, adult-like networks. The review highlights that slower structural maturation and gradual functional connectivity growth may be beneficial for long-term EF outcomes. However, the authors note limitations, including small sample sizes in longitudinal studies and heterogeneity in behavioral tasks, which complicate cross-study comparisons. They call for future research utilizing larger, diverse longitudinal cohorts, multimodal imaging, and standardized behavioral measures to further elucidate the unfolding of EF neural substrates in early childhood.

Provenance

The full processing record for this entry. Every stage of this paper's journey through the pipeline is logged — what ran, with which tool and model, how many attempts it took, and when it last completed.

Summary generated by qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant on 2026-06-26; verification: verified.

Topics

Ranked by relevance to this paper. Hover a topic for its definition.

• executive function