Age of second language acquisition affects nonverbal conflict processing in children: an <scp>fMRI</scp> study

Mohades, Seyede Ghazal; Struys, Esli; Van Schuerbeek, Peter; Baeken, Chris; Van de Craen, Piet; Luypaert, Robert · 2014 · OpenAlex-citations

DOI: 10.1002/brb3.246

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Summary

This study investigates whether the age of second language (L2) acquisition influences neural processing during nonverbal conflict resolution in children. While previous research has debated whether bilingualism confers a cognitive advantage in executive control, few studies have examined the underlying neural mechanisms in children or distinguished between simultaneous bilinguals (2L1) and sequential learners (L2L). The authors hypothesized that the constant need to resolve interlingual conflicts in bilinguals might alter brain function during nonverbal tasks, potentially hampering performance due to the recruitment of language-specific neural networks. The researchers conducted an fMRI study involving 51 healthy children aged 8–11 years, divided into three groups: 19 simultaneous bilinguals (2L1), 18 sequential L2 learners (L2L), and 14 monolingual controls (1L1). Participants performed two nonverbal conflict tasks: a color Simon task to assess stimulus–response (S–R) conflict and a numerical Stroop task to assess stimulus–stimulus (S–S) conflict. Behavioral metrics, including reaction times (RT) and accuracy, were recorded. fMRI data were acquired using a 3T scanner and analyzed using SPM8 software, with normalization to a pediatric-specific template to account for developmental brain differences. Statistical analyses included ANOVAs for behavioral data and random-effects models for neuroimaging data, comparing brain activation patterns across the three groups during incongruent versus congruent trials. Behavioral results indicated that bilingual children exhibited a significantly higher congruency effect (the difference in RT between incongruent and congruent trials) compared to monolinguals in both tasks. Specifically, 2L1 children showed the largest congruency effects, followed by L2Ls, and then monolinguals. Neuroimaging results revealed that bilinguals recruited additional brain regions typically associated with general cognitive control and language processing, including the caudate nucleus, posterior cingulate gyrus, superior temporal gyrus (STG), and precuneus. Crucially, activation in these areas was significantly higher in 2L1 children than in L2L children. This pattern suggests that simultaneous bilinguals engage language-related neural circuits more intensely when processing nonverbal conflicts. The findings suggest that the neural specialization developed through early bilingualism affects how children process nonverbal conflicts. The coupling of longer reaction times with increased recruitment of language-related brain areas supports the hypothesis that bilinguals may experience interference from their language control networks during nonverbal tasks. This implies that the "bilingual advantage" in cognitive control may not be universal; rather, the neural adaptations for managing language interference can hinder performance in other conflict domains, particularly in early childhood. The study highlights the importance of distinguishing between types of bilingualism and using neuroimaging to understand the complex relationship between language experience and executive function.

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• dual task performance