Survey on Teleoperation Concepts for Automated Vehicles
DOI: 10.1109/smc53654.2022.9945267
archive: archived pipeline: cataloged verified
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Summary
This paper presents a comprehensive literature survey on teleoperation concepts for automated vehicles (AVs), addressing the need for reliable fallback solutions when AVs encounter operational design domain limits or complex edge cases. As fully driverless vehicles become more prevalent, teleoperation emerges as a critical technology to enable remote human support, ensuring safety and continuity when autonomous systems fail. The authors aim to systematically categorize existing teleoperation approaches, establish a common taxonomy, and provide insights into industry activities and patent trends. The study reviews scientific literature and industry patents, grouping teleoperation concepts based on their interaction with the AV’s functional pipeline: Sense (perception), Plan (behavior and path planning), and Act (trajectory following and actuation). The authors define a taxonomy including Remote Driving, Remote Assistance, and Remote Monitoring. They analyze specific concepts such as Direct Control, where an operator uses steering wheels and pedals to directly control the vehicle; Shared Control, which uses Model Predictive Control (MPC) to override unsafe operator inputs; Trajectory Guidance, where operators provide path segments; Waypoint Guidance, involving discrete waypoint specification; Interactive Path Planning, where operators select from algorithmically generated path candidates; and Perception Modification, where operators clarify ambiguous sensor data. The survey also examines industry adoption, analyzing patent filings from 2000 to 2021 and highlighting activities by companies like Zoox, Ottopia, and Volkswagen. The findings reveal that while Direct Control is the most mature concept, it suffers from significant challenges regarding transmission latency and reduced situational awareness. Shared Control and Trajectory Guidance offer improved safety and robustness by decoupling the operator from low-level stabilization tasks, though they require functional perception modules. Waypoint Guidance and Interactive Path Planning further reduce operator workload by leveraging the AV’s planning capabilities, making them more resilient to network latency but less dynamic. The industry analysis shows an exponential growth in teleoperation-related patents, indicating a shift from niche hazardous applications to a mainstream fallback strategy for urban AVs. Major industry players are actively developing and testing these concepts, with Zoox and Ottopia demonstrating various approaches in public settings. The significance of this work lies in its establishment of a standardized taxonomy and its systematic comparison of teleoperation concepts, which aids researchers and engineers in selecting appropriate strategies for specific AV limitations. By highlighting the trade-offs between operator workload, system robustness, and required AV functionality, the paper provides a foundational framework for future development. It underscores that teleoperation is not merely a remote driving tool but a spectrum of human-machine collaboration strategies essential for the safe deployment of automated vehicles in complex real-world environments.
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| Stage | Outcome | Tool | Model | Prompt | Attempts | Completed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| discover | success | OpenAlex-citations | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| archive | success | semantic_scholar | — | — | 6 | 2026-06-25 |
| extract | success | cached | — | — | 2 | 2026-06-26 |
| clean | success | clean | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| chunk | success | chunk | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| embed | success | embed | Qwen/Qwen3-Embedding-8B | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| promote | success | — | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-18 |
| summarize | success | llm | qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant | summ-v5 | 1 | 2026-06-26 |
| tag | success | vector_similarity | — | — | 6 | 2026-06-18 |
| verify | partial | — | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-26 |
Summary generated by qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant on 2026-06-26; verification: verified_with_issues.
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- Theoretical Contribution: conceptual framework