A multi-method approach to understanding drivers' experiences and behavior under partial vehicle automation

Strayer, DL; Cooper, JM; Sanbonmatsu, DM; McDonnell, AS · 2023 · publications_jsonl

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Summary

This study investigates driver behavior, workload, and engagement during the use of Level 2 partial vehicle automation, addressing safety concerns regarding driver disengagement and over-reliance on automated systems. The research was motivated by conflicting evidence in the literature: while some studies suggest automation leads to decreased situation awareness and increased secondary task engagement, others indicate drivers remain engaged in real-world settings. To resolve these discrepancies, the authors employed a multi-method longitudinal design combining experimental, naturalistic, and survey approaches to assess how familiarity with automation influences driver cognition and behavior over time. The study involved 30 participants with no prior experience with Level 2 automation. The methodology consisted of three phases. First, an experimental session measured driver workload and engagement using electroencephalogram (EEG) data and a Detection Response Task (DRT) while participants drove manually and with automation on two distinct highway routes. Second, a 6- to 8-week naturalistic phase required participants to use the automated vehicle for their daily commutes, with video recordings capturing system usage, warnings, fatigue, fidgeting, and secondary tasks. Third, periodic surveys assessed changes in perceptions, trust, and intentions. A final experimental session repeated the initial protocol to measure the impact of extended practice. Results from the experimental phase indicated that drivers paid more attention to the driving environment under partial automation than during manual driving initially. However, after the familiarization period, attention decreased significantly in simpler highway environments, though EEG measures did not show corresponding decreases in workload or arousal. The naturalistic study revealed that drivers used automation more than 70% of the time. System warnings increased as drivers gained experience, suggesting a shift toward a more relaxed monitoring strategy. Drivers were less likely to use automation when driving demands were high. While secondary task engagement increased over time, it was not directly linked to automation use, and automation did not significantly affect fatigue or fidgeting compared to manual driving. Survey data showed that participants reported reduced stress and improved driving enjoyment, which correlated with increased intentions to use and purchase automated vehicles. Notably, trust in the system did not influence subjective evaluations of the driving experience. The study concludes that a multi-method approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of driver-automation interaction than single-method studies. Drivers generally remained engaged and adjusted their automation usage based on driving demands, but familiarity led to decreased vigilance in low-demand scenarios. The findings suggest that while Level 2 automation improves the driving experience and is widely adopted, it may lead to subtle changes in monitoring behavior that warrant further investigation to ensure safety as drivers become more accustomed to the technology.

Key finding

Drivers paid more attention to the driving environment under Level 2 partial automation than during manual driving in the initial session, but after 6-8 weeks of familiarization showed a significant decrease in attention under automation in the simpler highway environment; spectral EEG (frontal theta, parietal alpha) did not show evidence of decreased workload or engagement under automation, highlighting the importance of multiple measures and varied roadway conditions. Naturalistic data showed automation use >70% of the time, increasing system warnings with experience (more relaxed monitoring strategy), reduced automation use under higher driving demands, no automation effect on fatigue or fidgeting, and growing secondary task engagement over time. Surveys showed automation improved the driving experience, reduced stress, and increased intentions to use and purchase automated vehicles, while drivers remained cognizant of risks.

Methodology

on_road

Sample size: N=30 (12 female, 18 male; ages 18-55, M=35.7, SD=9.3); all Level 2 naive at enrollment

Provenance

The full processing record for this entry. Every stage of this paper's journey through the pipeline is logged — what ran, with which tool and model, how many attempts it took, and when it last completed. Discovered via tag_papers on 2026-05-30 (3 acquisition events logged).

Summary generated by qwen3.6-27b-nvidia on 2026-08-10; verification: verified.

Topics

Ranked by relevance to this paper. Hover a topic for its definition.

• automation
• automation surprise
• trust calibration
• hands on hands off engagement
• acceptance adoption
• automation complacency bias

Information type

What kind of knowledge this paper contributes, grouped by family — independent of topic (what it is about) and method (how it was studied).

• Empirical Findings: behavioral performance data, observational prevalence
• Theoretical Contribution: conceptual framework