On-road vehicle study of the experience of automated driving

Cooley, EH; Sanbonmatsu, DM; Strayer, DL; White, PH; Cooper, JM · 2022 · publications_jsonl

DOI: 10.1016/j.trf.2022.04.014

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Summary

**Research Question and Motivation** Prior research on automated driving has predominantly focused on driver trust, knowledge, and perceptions of Level 1 advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), often relying on surveys of existing vehicle owners or simulator studies. This study addresses the gap in understanding the subjective driving experience of novice users engaging with Level 2 automation for the first time. The authors sought to determine how Level 2 automation affects driver affect (enjoyment and stress), attention, and behavioral intentions, specifically testing whether initial exposure leads to favorable experiences that might reduce the need for consumer persuasion. **Methods** The study employed an on-road experimental design with 72 novice drivers (aged 25–40) who had no prior experience with Level 2 automated vehicles. Participants drove a 2018 Tesla Model 3 on a four-lane interstate freeway under two conditions: manual driving (Level 0) and automated driving (Level 2, with adaptive cruise control and lane keeping engaged). The order of conditions was counterbalanced. Data collection included self-report measures administered via tablet, including the Beliefs About Automated Driving Systems survey, a modified Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and specific driving experience and intention scales. Additionally, electroencephalogram (EEG) activity and a detection response task were recorded, though the paper focuses on self-reported outcomes. Participants completed a defensive driving course and familiarization drive before the experimental trials. **Findings** Factor analysis of affective measures identified two primary dimensions: "enjoyment" (excited, enthusiastic, cheerful, not bored) and "stress" (nervous, scared, distressed, not relaxed). Participants reported significantly higher enjoyment and lower stress during automated driving compared to manual driving ($t(70) = 7.40$ and $t(70) = -5.67$, respectively). No significant differences were found in alertness, sleepiness, confidence, or irritability between conditions. Post-drive beliefs regarding the dependability and overall evaluation of automated systems were more favorable than pre-drive beliefs. Participants generally agreed that automation made traveling safer, more enjoyable, and less stressful, and that they were comfortable relinquishing control. However, they did not report engaging in more non-driving activities during automation. Notably, 83.3% of participants reported continuously monitoring the vehicle during automated mode, indicating high vigilance despite the comfort reported. **Significance** The findings suggest that novice drivers experience Level 2 automation as a positive, low-stress activity that enhances driving enjoyment without reducing alertness or increasing disengagement. The favorable shift in beliefs after initial use implies that consumers may not require extensive persuasion to appreciate Level 2 vehicles. The high rate of continuous monitoring suggests that even when automation reduces stress, drivers maintain the vigilance required for safe Level 2 operation, which is critical for understanding the human-machine interface in semi-automated driving.

Key finding

On their first-ever drive with SAE Level 2 automation, novice users rated the automated drive as more enjoyable (M=2.89 vs 2.41 manual, t(70)=7.40, p<.001) and less stressful than manual driving, and their beliefs about automated systems improved after a single exposure.

Methodology

on_road

Sample size: 72

Provenance

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Topics

Ranked by relevance to this paper. Hover a topic for its definition.

• acceptance adoption
• trust calibration
• automation surprise
• automation
• passenger motion sickness comfort
• situational awareness

Information type

What kind of knowledge this paper contributes, grouped by family — independent of topic (what it is about) and method (how it was studied).

• Empirical Findings: self report data, observational prevalence
• Methodological Resource: validation psychometrics