Aiding Automated Shuttles with Their Driving Tasks as an On-Board Operator: A Case Study on Different Automated Driving Systems in Three Living Labs
DOI: 10.3390/app14083336
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Summary
This study addresses the critical need for user-centered design in human–machine interfaces (HMIs) for on-board operators of highly automated shuttle vehicles (SAE Level 4). While these shuttles aim to enhance public transport by reducing driver dependency, current technological limitations and legal requirements necessitate human supervision during a transitional phase. Because these operator roles were often viewed as temporary, their workspaces and HMIs were frequently retrofitted without adequate ergonomic or usability considerations. The research investigates how these interfaces impact operator work context, acceptance, system transparency, and trust, aiming to derive recommendations for future HMI design. The authors conducted an in-depth case study across three heterogeneous living laboratories in Germany: HEAT, RealLabHH, and TaBuLa. The study employed a mixed-methods approach involving nine on-board operators (three from each lab). Data collection included standardized questionnaires assessing work design, acceptance, transparency, and trust, as well as semi-structured interviews exploring workspace challenges and HMI suitability. The analysis utilized methodological triangulation, combining quantitative Likert-scale data with qualitative deductive categorization of interview responses. This design ensured high ecological validity by evaluating interfaces in their actual operational contexts rather than controlled laboratory settings. The findings revealed significant diversity in operator experiences across the three laboratories, underscoring that specific system setups and task definitions heavily influence user variables. The study identified ergonomics, physical demands, and system transparency as the most significant deficits in current HMI designs. Operators reported issues with workspace comfort and the clarity of system states, which are crucial for effective monitoring and intervention. The results highlighted that the suitability of HMI elements for completing key tasks varied considerably depending on the specific living lab’s configuration. These insights demonstrate that the lack of user-centered design in current retrofitted workspaces negatively impacts operator satisfaction and operational efficiency. The significance of this research lies in its challenge to the assumption that on-board operator interfaces are merely provisional solutions. Given the slower-than-expected progress in full driving automation, these interfaces are likely to persist in the mid-term. Consequently, the study provides actionable recommendations for designing operator workspaces that prioritize ergonomics, usability, and transparency. These findings are not only relevant for on-board operators but also bear implications for the design of remote operation workstations. By establishing best practices based on real-world operator feedback, the study contributes to the development of safer, more efficient, and more acceptable automated driving systems for public transport.
Provenance
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| Stage | Outcome | Tool | Model | Prompt | Attempts | Completed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| discover | success | Crossref | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-06 |
| archive | success | openalex | — | — | 5 | 2026-06-09 |
| extract | success | cached | — | — | 2 | 2026-06-09 |
| clean | success | clean | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-07 |
| chunk | success | chunk | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-07 |
| embed | success | embed | Qwen/Qwen3-Embedding-8B | — | 1 | 2026-06-07 |
| promote | success | — | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-06 |
| summarize | success | llm | qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant | summ-v5 | 1 | 2026-06-09 |
| tag | success | vector_similarity | — | — | 15 | 2026-06-11 |
| verify | success | — | — | — | 1 | 2026-06-09 |
Summary generated by qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant on 2026-06-09; verification: verified.
Topics
Ranked by relevance to this paper. Hover a topic for its definition.
- automation
- driverless ads
- teleoperation remote driving
- ehmi external hmi
- automation complacency bias
- odd communication
Information type
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- Applied Guidance: design guidelines
- Empirical Findings: self report data
- Theoretical Contribution: conceptual framework