Anticipatory Driving in Automated Vehicles: The Effects of Driving Experience and Distraction

He, Dengbo; DeGuzman, Chelsea A.; Donmez, Birsen · 2023 · Human Factors

DOI: 10.1177/00187208211026133

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Summary

This study investigates how driving experience and visual-manual distraction influence drivers’ ability to anticipate upcoming traffic events in automated vehicles equipped with SAE Level-2 automation (adaptive cruise control and lane keeping assist). While prior research indicates that experienced drivers and non-distracted drivers exhibit better anticipation in non-automated vehicles, a gap exists regarding the combined effects of these factors in automated contexts. The authors hypothesized that secondary tasks would impede anticipation by diverting attention from critical cues, while driving experience would facilitate it, though automation might alter these dynamics by providing spare attentional capacity. The researchers conducted a driving simulator experiment with 32 participants, divided into novice (less than 3 years licensure) and experienced (over 8 years licensure) groups. The study employed a 2x2 between-subjects design manipulating driving experience and the presence of a self-paced visual-manual secondary task (searching for specific phrases on an infotainment display). Participants completed four experimental drives featuring complex anticipatory scenarios, such as chain braking or lane changes by other vehicles. Data collection included eye-tracking to measure visual attention to anticipatory cues and the secondary task, as well as video recordings to identify anticipatory behaviors. These behaviors were categorized as pre-event actions (e.g., braking, disengaging automation) or pre-event preparations (e.g., hovering fingers over controls), requiring at least one glance at the cues to be counted. Results demonstrated that engaging in the secondary task significantly impeded anticipatory driving. Drivers with the task spent less time looking at anticipatory cues and took longer to first glance at them compared to those without the task. Consequently, they were less likely to perform anticipatory behaviors. Driving experience facilitated anticipation; experienced drivers exhibited more anticipatory behaviors than novices. However, contrary to findings in non-automated driving, experienced drivers did not spend more time looking at cues than novices in either task condition. Instead, their advantage lay in their behavioral responses rather than visual scanning duration. Distraction shifted attention away from cues in both experience groups, reducing the likelihood of proactive control actions or preparations. The study concludes that in automated vehicles, visual-manual distraction hinders anticipation regardless of driving experience, while experience aids behavioral anticipation but does not necessarily increase visual attention to cues. These findings suggest that although Level-2 automation relieves manual control demands, it does not eliminate the risks associated with secondary task engagement. The authors recommend restricting visual-manual distractions in automated vehicles to preserve drivers’ ability to anticipate and respond to traffic events, highlighting the need for safety interventions that account for the distinct cognitive and behavioral impacts of automation.

Key finding

Visual-manual distraction impedes anticipatory driving by reducing attention to cues and proactive behaviors, while driving experience facilitates anticipation in automated vehicles.

Methodology

simulator

Sample size: 32

Provenance

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Summary generated by qwen3.6-27b-prismaquant on 2026-06-10; verification: verified.

Topics

Ranked by relevance to this paper. Hover a topic for its definition.

• anticipation
• automation surprise
• situational awareness
• manual
• distraction detection algorithms
• temporal

Information type

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• Empirical Findings: behavioral performance data
• Theoretical Contribution: conceptual framework, theory or model