Bringing the Driver Back In-The-Loop: Usefulness of Letting the Driver Know the Duration of an Automated Drive and its Impact on Takeover Performance

Marx, Cyril; Ebinger, Nikolai; Santuccio, Erika; Moertl, Peter · 2022 · Crossref

DOI: 10.54941/ahfe1002475

archive: archived pipeline: cataloged

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Summary

This study investigates how providing drivers with information about the duration of automated driving (AD) and the subsequent takeover period affects their reengagement performance and perceived usefulness in SAE Level 3 automated vehicles. The primary motivation is the critical challenge of safely re-engaging drivers who have been disengaged from the driving task, as uncertainty regarding takeover timing can compromise situation awareness and increase error rates. The authors hypothesized that displaying prediction information for both the automated driving phase (AP) and the takeover phase (TP) would enhance monitoring behavior and driving performance compared to displaying only one type of information or none. The research employed a driving simulator study with 41 participants (24 male, 17 female) using a mixed-design experimental approach. Participants alternated between manual and automated driving modes, performing four takeovers each. The between-subjects factor was the type of duration display: a baseline with no prediction, TP only (countdown in seconds during the 15-second takeover window), AP only (countdown in minutes during the automated phase), or a combined display showing both AP and TP. Gaze behavior was tracked using a SmartEye Pro eyetracker, and driving performance was measured via maneuver execution metrics such as reaction time and steering wheel reversals. Participants also completed questionnaires assessing perceived usefulness, simulator sickness, and intention to use such systems in daily life. Results indicated that the combined AP and TP display was rated as significantly more useful than the TP-only display, with both AP and the combined display receiving high usefulness ratings. Gaze analysis revealed that drivers using the combined display looked at the AD display more frequently during takeovers and spent more total time viewing it during automated driving segments compared to other groups. Notably, an interaction effect showed that while drivers with the combined display initially looked less at the street during the first takeover, they developed a safer gaze behavior over time, monitoring the road environment more closely during later takeovers than drivers in other conditions. No significant differences in driving performance metrics were found among the display types, likely due to the moderate difficulty of the simulated takeover scenario involving a static obstacle. A strong positive correlation (r = .68, p < .001) was found between perceived usefulness and the intention to use the system in everyday driving. The findings suggest that providing continuous duration information for both automated driving and takeover phases is highly beneficial for driver acceptance and monitoring behavior. The combined display allows drivers to better manage their attention, transitioning from non-driving related activities to road monitoring more effectively. However, the study notes that an acclimatization period is required for drivers to fully utilize the combined information without being distracted by the display. The authors conclude that while the current study used a simple traffic environment, future research should test these duration displays in more complex and challenging driving scenarios to fully assess their impact on takeover performance.

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Topics

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• takeover transitions
• automation
• temporal
• automation surprise
• situational awareness
• mode awareness

Information type

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• Empirical Findings: behavioral performance data
• Methodological Resource: measurement protocol
• Theoretical Contribution: conceptual framework