following distance

The longitudinal gap kept behind the lead vehicle: time headway, distance headway, time-to-collision, and car-following spacing behavior. This is the spacing-to-lead-vehicle outcome, distinct from the absolute speed the driver picks (speed_choice) and from the braking action triggered when that gap closes (braking_response).

280 paper(s) · ranked by relevance to this topic

1. Minimum and Comfortable Driving Headways: Reality versus Perception ↗ · 2001 · Meirav Taieb‐Maimon et al. · indexed
2. Preferred time-headway of highway drivers ↗ · 2002 · Ayres, Thomas J. et al. · indexed
3. Comparison of Car-Following Behavior in Terms of Safety Indicators Between China and Sweden · 2019 · Liu, Tong et al. · archived
4. Preferred Following Distance as a Function of Speed—Function-Specific Automation (Level 1) Applications · 2022 · Weaver, Starla et al. · archived
5. Assessing Drivers Ability to Carry Out Headway Advice in Motorway Car Driving ↗ · 2011 · Risto, Malte et al. · indexed
6. The impact of the following vehicles behaviors on the car following behaviors of the ego-vehicle · 2025 · Liu, Yang et al. · archived
7. Effects of Lead Vehicle Speed and Separation Distance on Driver Car-Following Behavior ↗ · 2006 · Abbink, David A. · indexed
8. Naturalistic Study of Truck Following Behavior · 2016 · Nodine, Emily et al. · archived
9. Driving Etiquette · 2019 · Peng, Huei et al. · archived
10. Do drivers change their manual car-following behaviour after automated car-following? · 2020 · Louw, Tyron et al. · archived
11. Understanding the Dynamics of Heavy Vehicle Interactions in Car-Following ↗ · 2012 · Aghabayk, Kayvan et al. · indexed
12. Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control Human Factors Study : Experiment 4 : Preferred Following Distance and Performance in An Emergency Event · 2017 · Balk, Stacy A. et al. · archived
13. Experimental study of short-range interactions in vehicular traffic · 2009 · Appert-Rolland, Cécile · archived
14. HEADWAY MODELING IN NORTHERN IRAQI TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS ↗ · 2018 · AbdulMawjoud, Ayman A. · indexed
15. Characterizing Heterogeneous Car-Following Behaviors of Human Drivers in Mixed Traffic · 2024 · Sun, Meng et al. · archived
16. Variations in Driver Behavior: An Analysis of Car-Following Behavior Heterogeneity as a Function of Road Type and Traffic Condition · 2017 · Berthaume, Andrew et al. · archived
17. Rear Vehicle Matters: How Tailgaters Influence the Car-Following Behaviors of the Ego-Vehicle · 2025 · Liu, Yang et al. · archived
18. Driving simulator study for the effects of autonomous vehicles on drivers behaviour under car-following conditions · 2022 · Calvi, Alessandro et al. · archived
19. Response times in drivers' gap acceptance decisions during overtaking · 2023 · Abbink, David A. · archived
20. Traffic Dynamics: Studies in Car Following ↗ · 1958 · Chandler, Robert E. et al. · indexed
21. A field study on braking responses during driving. II. Minimum driver braking times ↗ · 1995 · SCHWEITZER, N. et al. · indexed
22. Characterization of Longitudinal Driving Behavior by Measurable Parameters ↗ · 2010 · Wang, Jianqiang et al. · indexed
23. The Effect of Car-following in Different Time Headways on Visual Distraction and Its Relation to System Effectiveness of a Forward Collision Warning System · 2012 · ABE, Genya et al. · archived
24. The Influence of Lead Vehicle Behavior and Vehicle Rates of Closure on a Driver's Braking Behavior ↗ · 2007 · Kelling, Nicholas et al. · indexed
25. Trade-off between jerk and time headway as an indicator of driving style. · 2017 · Itkonen, Teemu H et al. · archived
26. Driver workload at higher speeds. · 2010 · Fitzpatrick, Kay et al. · archived
27. Naturalistic driving data for the analysis of car-following models. · 2013 · Rakha, Hesham et al. · archived
28. Alternative Definitions of Passing Critical Gaps · 2011 · Toledo, Tomer et al. · archived
29. Driver behavior in traffic. · 2012 · Abbas, Montasir et al. · archived
30. Control Theoretic Models of Human Drivers in Car Following ↗ · 1977 · Bekey, George A. et al. · indexed
31. An empirical assessment of driver motivation and emotional states in perceived safety margins under varied driving conditions · 2012 · Zhang, Yu et al. · archived
32. Modeling Driver Response to Lead Vehicle Decelerating · 2004 · Najm, Wassim et al. · archived
33. Investigation of Driver Adaptations in a Mixed Traffic Environment · 2024 · Kondyli, Alexandra et al. · archived
34. Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control: Driver Acceptance of Following Gap Settings Less than One Second ↗ · 2010 · Nowakowski, Christopher et al. · indexed
35. Using SHRP2-Nds Data to Investigate Freeway Operations, Human Factors, and Safety: Final Report · 2018 · Avelar, Raul Eduardo et al. · archived
36. Supporting car-following behavior through V2V-based beyond-visual-range information display · 2026 · Gu, Feiqi et al. · archived
37. Statistical Analysis of Driver Behavior Data in Different Regimes of the Car-Following Stage ↗ · 2007 · Ma, Xiaoliang et al. · indexed
38. Car-following behavioural adaptation when driving next to automated vehicles on a dedicated lane on motorways: A driving simulator study in the Netherlands · 2021 · Schoenmakers, Mathijs et al. · archived
39. How Reaction Time, Update Time, and Adaptation Time Influence the Stability of Traffic Flow · 2008 · Kesting, Arne et al. · archived
40. Transferability of Car-Following Models Between Driving Simulator and Field Traffic · 2017 · Papadimitriou, Stavros et al. · archived
41. Estimating Individual Speed-Spacing Relationship and Assessing Ability of Newell's Car-Following Model to Reproduce Trajectories ↗ · 2008 · Duret, Aurélien et al. · indexed
42. Interdriver Differences in Car-Following: A Vehicle Trajectory-Based Study ↗ · 2006 · Ossen, Saskia et al. · indexed
43. IVHS Countermeasures for Rear-End Collision, Task 1 Vol. VI: Human Factors Studies · 1994 · Wilson, Terry · archived
44. Driver Behavior and Gap-Acceptance Characteristics at Roundabouts in California ↗ · 2008 · Xu, Feng et al. · indexed
45. Longitudinal control of the lead car of a platoon ↗ · 1994 · Godbole, D.N. et al. · indexed
46. Understanding widely scattered traffic flows, the capacity drop, and platoons as effects of variance-driven time gaps · 2006 · Treiber, Martin et al. · archived
47. IVHS Countermeasures For Rear-End Collisions, Task 1 Volume Vi: Human Factors Studies, Interim Report · 1994 · NHTSA · archived
48. IVHS Countermeasures For Rear-End Collisions, Task 1 Volume V: 1985 Nass Case Analysis, Interim Report · 1994 · WILSON, TERRY · archived
49. Analyzing Microscopic Behavior: Driver Mandatory Lane Change Behavior on a Multilane Freeway · 2008 · Bham, Ghulam H. · archived
50. Behavioral adaptation of drivers when driving among automated vehicles · 2022 · Aramrattana, Maytheewat et al. · archived
51. Verification and Calibration of Microscopic Traffic Simulation Using Driver Behavior and Car-Following Metrics for Freeway Segments · 2024 · Medina, Juan C. et al. · archived
52. Car following with an inertia-oriented driving technique: A driving simulator experiment · 2022 · Tenenboim, Einat et al. · archived
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55. Variations in Parameters of Time Headway Models According to Macroscopic Variables, Fundamental Diagram, and Exogenous Effects ↗ · 2011 · Ha, Duy-Hung et al. · indexed
56. Adaptive driver modelling in ADAS to improve user acceptance: A study using naturalistic data · 2018 · Fleming, James M. et al. · archived
57. Evaluation of Work Zone Mobility by Utilizing Naturalistic Driving Study Data, Phase II · 2022 · Zhou, Huaguo Hugo et al. · archived
58. Effect of daily car-following behaviors on urban roadway rear-end crashes and near-crashes: A naturalistic driving study ↗ · 2021 · Wang, Xuesong et al. · indexed
59. A Simulation Study on Effects of Platooning Gaps on Drivers of Conventional Vehicles in Highway Merging Situations ↗ · 2022 · Aramrattana, Maytheewat et al. · indexed
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61. Combining driving simulator and physiological sensor data in a latent variable model to incorporate the effect of stress in car-following behaviour · 2019 · Paschalidis, Evangelos et al. · archived
62. Investigation of Key Safety Measures for Pre and Post-Deployment of Connected and Automated Vehicles · 2025 · Kondyli, Alexandra et al. · archived
63. An Empirical Analysis of Vehicle Time Headways on Rural Two-lane Two-way Roads · 2012 · Rossi, Riccardo et al. · archived
64. Estimation of Driver Reaction Time from Car-Following Data ↗ · 2006 · Ma, Xiaoliang et al. · indexed
65. Automatic Vehicle-Following ↗ · 1992 · Chien, Chih‐Ching et al. · indexed
66. Mobile Phone Use in a Car-Following Situation: Impact on Time Headway and Effectiveness of Driver’s Rear-End Risk Compensation Behavior via a Driving Simulator Study ↗ · 2020 · Chen, Yunxing et al. · indexed
67. Analyzing Microscopic Behavioral between Two Phases of Follower and Leader in Traffic Oscillation with Developing Artificial Neural Networks · 2017 · Mirbaha, Babak et al. · archived
68. Increasing Following Headway in a Driving Simulator and Transfer to Real World Driving ↗ · 2020 · Arnold, Michelle L. et al. · indexed
69. The effects of a mobile telephone task on driver behaviour in a car following situation · 1995 · Alm, Håkan et al. · archived
70. Overtaking automated truck platoons: Effects of platoon organisations and traffic situation on driving behaviours of nearby manual vehicle drivers · 2025 · Lin, Zijian et al. · archived
71. Gamma-GQM Time Headway Model: Endogenous Effects in Rural Two-lane Two-way Roads ↗ · 2014 · Rossi, Riccardo et al. · indexed
72. IVHS Countermeasures for Rear-End Collisions, Task 2 -- Functional Goals · 1996 · Wilson, Terry · archived
73. Microscopic fundamental relationships between vehicle speed and spacing in view of asymmetric traffic theory ↗ · 2011 · Yeo, Hwasoo et al. · indexed
74. Delays, inaccuracies and anticipation in microscopic traffic models · 2005 · Treiber, Martin et al. · archived
75. Intelligent Cruise Control Field Operational Test Vol III: Performance of a String or Cluster of ACC-Equipped Cars · 1998 · Bogard, S. et al. · archived
76. A Review of Sociodemographic Influences on Car-Following Behavior ↗ · 2026 · Hussain, Zahid et al. · indexed
77. Surprise Braking Trials, Time-to-Collision Judgments, and “First Look” Maneuvers Under Realistic Rear-End Crash Scenarios · 2005 · Kiefer, R. J. et al. · archived
78. Incorporating Driver Behaviors Into Connected and Automated Vehicle Simulation · 2016 · Songchitruksa, Praprut et al. · archived
79. A Theory of Visual Control of Braking Based on Information about Time-to-Collision ↗ · 1976 · Lee, David N. · indexed
80. An Adaptive Class-wise Leader-Follower Pair Identification Framework and Behavioural Regimes in Heterogeneous Traffic ↗ · 2026 · Eldhose, Susan et al. · indexed
81. A cognitive process approach to modeling gap acceptance in overtaking · 2023 · Mohammad, Samir H.A. et al. · archived
82. Lidar Data Analysis for Time to Headway Determination in the DriveSafe Project Field Tests ↗ · 2013 · Altay, İlker et al. · indexed
83. Studies of Weaving and Merging Traffic: A Symposium · 1948 · Wynn, Frederick Houston et al. · archived
84. Modelling the effects of stress on gap-acceptance decisions combining data from driving simulator and physiological sensors · 2018 · Paschalidis, Evangelos et al. · archived
85. Identification of driver car-following behaviour ↗ · 2005 · Mulder, Mark et al. · indexed
86. Summary Report : Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control Human Factors Study · 2017 · Inman, Vaughan W. et al. · archived
87. A comprehensive examination of naturalistic lane-changes · 2004 · Lee, Suzanne E. et al. · archived
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89. Influence of Reaction Times and Anticipation on Stability of Vehicular Traffic Flow ↗ · 2007 · Treiber, Martin et al. · indexed
90. Drivers’ Responses to Lead Vehicles: Thresholds for Triggering an Emergency Response, Age Differences, Crash Risks, and Influence of Secondary Task Engagement ↗ · 2021 · Muttart, Jeffrey et al. · indexed
91. The weights of drivers’ on-route concerns in car-following behaviours ↗ · 2025 · Salehikalam, Arsalan et al. · indexed
92. Response Time and Time Headway of an Adaptive Cruise Control. An Empirical Characterization and Potential Impacts on Road Capacity · 2020 · Makridis, Michail et al. · archived
93. From Driving Simulator Experiments to Field-Traffic Application: Improving the Transferability of Car-Following Models · 2021 · Paschalidis, Evangelos et al. · archived
94. Follower behavioural change based on natural patterns in traffic oscillation ↗ · 2021 · Salehikalam, Arsalan et al. · indexed
95. Investigating the intra-driver heterogeneity in car following behaviour based on large-scale naturalistic driving study ↗ · 2023 · Rao, Hongyu et al. · indexed
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98. Analysis and Validation of Surrogate Safety Measures by Types of Lead and Following Vehicles ↗ · 2017 · Zhao, Peibo et al. · indexed
99. Neural Agent Car-Following Models ↗ · 2007 · Panwai, Sakda et al. · indexed
100. Modeling Driver Behavior as Sequential Risk-Taking Task ↗ · 2008 · Hamdar, Samer H. et al. · indexed
101. Safety Assessment of Ecodriving Vehicles on Following Traffic ↗ · 2019 · Duan, Xi et al. · indexed
102. Design of a Haptic Gas Pedal for Active Car-Following Support ↗ · 2010 · Mulder, Mark et al. · indexed
103. Comfort and Safety in Conditional Automated Driving in Dependence on Personal Driving Behavior · 2023 · Vasile, Laurin et al. · archived
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106. Preventing Crashes in Mixed Traffic With Automated and Human-Driven Vehicles · 2020 · Talebpour, Alireza et al. · archived
107. Sharing the Road: How Human Drivers Interact with Autonomous Vehicles on Highways · 2022 · Huang, Chunxi et al. · archived
108. Car-Following Behavior of Human-Driven Vehicles in Mixed-Flow Traffic: A Driving Simulator Study ↗ · 2023 · Zhou, Anye et al. · indexed
109. Scene-aware driver state understanding in car-following behaviors ↗ · 2017 · Xu, Donghao et al. · indexed
110. Study of the population in terms of knowledge about the distance between vehicles in motion ↗ · 2021 · Krzysztof, Olejnik · indexed
111. Interactive merging behavior in a coupled driving simulator: Experimental framework and case study · 2022 · Abbink, David A. · archived
112. A New Traffic System on Driver Sensitivity and Safe Distance Headway ↗ · 2023 · Khan, Zawar H. et al. · indexed
113. Development and evaluation of a microscopic overtaking gap acceptance model for two-lane highways · 2016 · Ghods, Amir H. et al. · archived
114. Simulation of Automated Vehicles' Drive Cycles · 2018 · LeVine, Scott · archived
115. A general formulation for time-to-collision safety indicator ↗ · 2012 · Saffarzadeh, Mahmoud et al. · indexed
116. Comparing the Observable Response Times of ACC and CACC Systems ↗ · 2022 · Brunner, Johannes S. et al. · indexed
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118. Using Driving Simulators in Road Design–A Road Safety Study of Merging Traffic in Tunnels · 2015 · Patten, Christopher JD · archived
119. Driver’s Anticipation and Memory Driving Car-Following Model ↗ · 2020 · Jafaripournimchahi, Ammar et al. · indexed
120. Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control: Human Factors Analysis · 2013 · Jones, Stephen · archived
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122. A First Investigation of Truck Drivers’ Preferences and Behaviors using a Prototype Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control System ↗ · 2018 · Yang, Shiyan et al. · indexed
123. New time-based surrogate safety measure to assess crash risk in car-following scenarios ↗ · 2014 · Behbahani, Hamid et al. · indexed
124. Intelligent Cruise Control Field Operational Test: Interim Report · 1997 · Fancher, Paul et al. · archived
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126. Effects of heavy vehicles on dynamic traffic features. · 2016 · Ahn, Soyoung et al. · archived
127. Car-Following Model Calibration and Analysis of Intra-Driver Heterogeneity ↗ · 2010 · Wang, Hao et al. · indexed
128. Detection and Categorization of Altercontrol. Phase 2 Report to BMW on a Methodical Approach for the Engineering of Driver Assistance Systems · 2001 · Ervin, Robert et al. · archived
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130. Potential benefits of an adaptive forward collision warning system · 2007 · Jamson, A. Hamish et al. · archived
131. Human Factors Issues Related to Truck Platooning Operations · 2024 · Chao, Szu-Fu et al. · archived
132. VISSIM Calibration for Urban Freeways · 2015 · Dong, Jing et al. · archived
133. ACC design for safety and fuel efficiency: the acceptance of safety margins when adopting different driving styles · 2019 · Pampel, Sanna M. et al. · archived
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135. Effects of Signing and Configuration of Partially Automated Truck Platooning on Light-Vehicle Driver Behavior [techbrief] · 2024 · NHTSA · archived
136. Development of Tools to Model Driver Behavior in a Cooperative and Driverless Vehicle Mixed Roadway Environment · 2022 · Hunter, Michael et al. · archived
137. Drivers' gap acceptance and time to arrival judgements when confronted with approaching bicycles and e-bicycles ↗ · 2020 · Schleinitz, Katja et al. · indexed
138. MODELING OF THE GAP ACCEPTANCE BEHAVIOR AT A MERGING SECTION OF URBAN FREEWAY ↗ · 2008 · Hwang, Sun Yon et al. · indexed
139. Characterization of arterial traffic congestion through analysis of operational parameters (gap acceptance and lane changing). · 2010 · Gurupackiam, Saravanan et al. · archived
140. A driving simulator study on the perception of distances in situations of car-following and overtaking · 2006 · Bergeron, Jacques et al. · archived
141. Human Merging Behavior in a Coupled Driving Simulator: How Do We Resolve Conflicts? · 2024 · Abbink, David A. · archived
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143. Advanced Operations Focused on Connected Vehicles/Infrastructure (CVI-UTC) · 2016 · Dingus, Thomas A et al. · archived
144. Behavioral adaptation of human drivers in car-following interactions with automated vehicles ↗ · 2026 · Saljoqi, Masoud et al. · indexed
145. Mechanical Restriction versus Human Overreaction Triggering Congested Traffic States · 2004 · Lee, Hyun Keun et al. · archived
146. Optical Information for Car Following: The Driving by Visual Angle (DVA) Model ↗ · 2007 · Andersen, George J. et al. · indexed
147. Nonlinear spacing policies for vehicle platoons: A geometric approach to decentralized control · 2021 · Wijnbergen, Paul et al. · archived
148. Proposal of Non-dimensional Parameter Indices to Evaluate Safe Driving Behavior · 2013 · Hiraoka, Toshihiro et al. · archived
149. Modeling following behavior of vehicles using trajectory data under mixed traffic conditions: an Indian viewpoint ↗ · 2020 · Raju, Narayana et al. · indexed
150. Determinations of critical gap and follow-up time at roundabouts in Jordan Wyznaczanie bezpiecznych odległości pomiędzy pojazdami i czasów dojazdu na rondach w Jordanii · 2019 · Hazim, Nabil et al. · archived
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152. Human Merging Behavior in a Coupled Driving Simulator: How Do We Resolve Conflicts? · 2024 · Siebinga, Olger et al. · archived
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154. Analysis of Truck Driver Behavior to Design Different Lane Change Styles in Automated Driving · 2020 · Wang, Zheng et al. · archived
155. Impact of Time-to-Collision Information on Driving Behavior in Connected Vehicle Environments Using A Driving Simulator Test Bed · 2015 · Osman, Osama A. et al. · archived
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197. Comparative analysis of drivers' start‐up time of the first two vehicles at signalized intersections ↗ · 2015 · Li, Zhenlong et al. · indexed
198. On the well-posedness of the "Bando-follow the leader" car following model and a time-delayed version ↗ · 2023 · Gong, Xiaoqian et al. · indexed
199. Implementation of chosen risk index during car-following behaviour under wet weather condition ↗ · 2019 · Shariff, Mey Mohammed et al. · indexed
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201. Behavior Measurement, Analysis, and Regime Classification in Car Following · 2007 · Ma, Xiaoliang et al. · archived
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203. Modelling overtaking strategy and lateral distance in car-to-cyclist overtaking on rural roads: A driving simulator experiment · 2019 · Farah, Haneen et al. · archived
204. Car-Following Models for Human-Driven Vehicles and Autonomous Vehicles: A Systematic Review ↗ · 2023 · Wang, Zelin et al. · indexed
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206. Fuzzy parameters estimation for car-following modelling ↗ · 2000 · González-Rojo, S. et al. · indexed
207. Longitudinal motion control algorithm for autonomous vehicles taking decisions based on the preceding vehicle behavior pattern ↗ · 2025 · Qiao, Xinghan et al. · indexed
208. Towards a Complete Safety Framework for Longitudinal Driving · 2022 · Sidorenko, Galina et al. · archived
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210. Saturation Flow at Signalized Intersections during Longer Green Time ↗ · 2006 · Khosla, Karan et al. · indexed
211. A State-of-the-Art Review of Car-Following Models with Particular Considerations of Heavy Vehicles ↗ · 2015 · Aghabayk, Kayvan et al. · indexed
212. Full velocity difference model for a car-following theory ↗ · 2001 · Jiang, Rui et al. · indexed
213. Effect of the car-following combinations on the instability of heterogeneous traffic flow ↗ · 2014 · Ngoduy, Dong · indexed
214. Safety-critical traffic control by connected automated vehicles · 2023 · Zhao, Chenguang et al. · archived
215. DEVELOPING A NEW HYBRID SAFETY CAR-FOLLOWING MODEL · 2014 · Al-Jameel, Hamid Athab · archived
216. Analysis of Distribution and Calibration of Car-Following Sensitivity Parameters in Microscopic Traffic Simulation Models ↗ · 2004 · Schultz, Grant G. et al. · indexed
217. Modeling of Driver Cut-in Behavior Towards a Platoon ↗ · 2022 · Lu, Yun et al. · indexed
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