looked but failed to see

Looked-but-failed-to-see (LBFTS): the error in which a driver directs gaze toward an object or hazard yet fails to perceive or report it, a perception/attention failure despite adequate fixation, prominent in intersection and motorcycle crash causation. A specific GAZE-DIRECTED detection failure, distinct from hazard_perception (the general skill of recognizing developing dangers), peripheral_attention (objects detected, or missed, outside fixation), and eye_movements_scanning (the pattern of looking, regardless of whether perception followed).

142 paper(s) · ranked by relevance to this topic

1. Inattentional Blindness in Motorcycle Detection: Allocating Attention to Detect Motorcycles ↗ · 2018 · Pammer, Kristen et al. · indexed
2. The ‘Saw but Forgot’ error: A role for short-term memory failures in understanding junction crashes? · 2019 · Robbins, Chloe J. et al. · archived
3. A comprehensive safety analysis for gaze fixation of drivers to outside scene · 2022 · Sarkar, Abhijit · archived
4. Design of an Experiment to Pinpoint Cognitive Failure Processes in the Interaction of Motorists and Vulnerable Road Users ↗ · 2023 · Denk, Florian et al. · indexed
5. Research on drivers' hazard perception and visual characteristics before vehicle-to-powered two-wheeler collisions ↗ · 2025 · Wu, Xianhui et al. · indexed
6. A Preliminary Assessment of Rider/Driver Gaze Behaviour in Slovenian Urban Areas ↗ · 2022 · Gruden, Chiara et al. · indexed
7. Change blindness in simulated driving in individuals with homonymous visual field loss · 2022 · Swan, Garrett et al. · archived
8. Extending Analysis of Older Drivers’ Scanning Patterns at Intersections ↗ · 2016 · Yamani, Yusuke et al. · indexed
9. A Review of Driver Gaze Estimation and Application in Gaze Behavior Understanding · 2023 · Sharma, Pavan Kumar et al. · archived
10. Were they in the loop during automated driving? Links between visual attention and crash potential · 2017 · Louw, Tyron et al. · archived
11. Driver eye-scanning behavior at intersections at night. · 2009 · Higgins, Laura L. et al. · archived
12. Driver attention in urban intersections when crossing paths with cyclists · 2025 · Ahlström, Christer et al. · archived
13. Driver Inattention Detection based on Eye Gaze—Road Event Correlation ↗ · 2009 · Fletcher, Luke et al. · indexed
14. Analysis of Driver Gaze and Attention to Traffic Signs ↗ · 2022 · Shabani, Shabnam et al. · indexed
15. Looking at the Road When Driving Around Bends: Influence of Vehicle Automation and Speed · 2019 · Schnebelen, Damien et al. · archived
16. Where to gaze during take-over: Eye gaze strategy analysis of different situation awareness and hazard perception levels ↗ · 2023 · Ding, Wen et al. · indexed
17. Navigating Intersections ↗ · 2015 · Yamani, Yusuke et al. · indexed
18. Minimizing driver errors: examining factors leading to failed target tracking and detection. · 2013 · Beck, Melissa R. et al. · archived
19. Comparison of Glancing Behaviors of Riders and Drivers at Unsignalized Intersections Involving Right Turns ↗ · 2017 · Muttart, Jeffrey et al. · indexed
20. A Literature Review of Inattentional and Change Blindness in Transportation · 2009 · Hannon, D. · archived
21. Age-Related Differences in Vehicle Control and Eye Movement Patterns at Intersections: Older and Middle-Aged Drivers · 2016 · Yamani, Yusuke et al. · archived
22. Comparing the responses and visual behaviors of older and younger drivers in car-to-cyclist collisions using a driving simulator · 2025 · Zhao, Yuqing et al. · archived
23. Driving With Hemianopia X: Effects of Cross Traffic on Gaze Behaviors and Pedestrian Responses at Intersections · 2022 · Xu, Jing et al. · archived
24. Glass half-full: On-road glance metrics differentiate crashes from near-crashes in the 100-car data ↗ · 2017 · Seppelt, Bobbie et al. · indexed
25. Safety in numbers: Target prevalence affects the detection of vehicles during simulated driving · 2014 · Beanland, Vanessa et al. · archived
26. The Effects of Momentary Visual Disruption on Hazard Anticipation and Awareness in Driving ↗ · 2014 · Borowsky, Avinoam et al. · indexed
27. Impact of Cognitive Distractions on Drivers’ Hazardous Event Anticipation and Mitigation Behavior in Vehicle–Bicycle Conflict Situations ↗ · 2020 · Ebadi, Yalda et al. · indexed
28. Shift the gaze ↗ · 2026 · Illgner, Johannes et al. · indexed
29. The Relative Frequency of Unsafe Driving Acts in Serious Traffic Crashes [Final Report] · 2001 · Hendricks, Donald L. et al. · archived
30. Modeling Effects of Forward Glance Durations on Latent Hazard Detection ↗ · 2017 · Park, Hyoshin et al. · indexed
31. Human Factors Issues in Intersection Safety [Issue Briefs vol. 12] · 2009 · NHTSA · archived
32. Crash risk associated with eyes-off-road duration by road control type and intersection type · 2025 · Han, Shu et al. · archived
33. Drivers’ Visual Search Behavior Toward Vulnerable Road Users at Junctions as a Function of Cycling Experience ↗ · 2018 · Robbins, Chloe Jade et al. · indexed
34. Where drivers are looking at during takeover: Implications for safe takeovers during conditionally automated driving ↗ · 2023 · Huang, Chao et al. · indexed
35. Feature-based attentional set as a cause of traffic accidents ↗ · 2007 · Most, Steven B. et al. · indexed
36. The Effect of Sight Distance Training on the Visual Scanning of Motorcycle Riders: A Preliminary Look · 2013 · Smith, Terry et al. · archived
37. How do drivers allocate visual attention to vulnerable road users when turning at urban intersections? ↗ · 2023 · Girgis, Joelle et al. · indexed
38. Modeling Drivers' Situational Awareness from Eye Gaze for Driving Assistance · 2024 · Biswas, Abhijat et al. · archived
39. A Looming Crisis ↗ · 2014 · Liang, Yulan et al. · indexed
40. Driver Behavior on Expressway Intersections: Differences in Visual Scanning, Stress and Driving Performance · 2008 · Boyle, Linda Ng et al. · archived
41. The Effect of Sight Distance Training on the Visual Scanning of Motorcycle Riders: A Preliminary Look [Traffic Tech] · 2013 · NHTSA · archived
42. The Impact of Driver Inattention on Near-Crash/Crash Risk: An Analysis Using the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study Data · 2006 · Klauer, Sheila G. et al. · archived
43. How do drivers mitigate the effects of naturalistic visual complexity? · 2023 · Suchan, Jakob · archived
44. Attention Allocation in Gaze of Young, Middle-Aged and Elderly Drivers During Driving Simulations · 2025 · Poll, Anamarija et al. · archived
45. Detecting Critical Mismatched Driver Visual Attention During Lane Change: An Embedding Kernel Algorithm ↗ · 2024 · Xu, Jingbin et al. · indexed
46. Intersection Negotiation Problems of Older Drivers. Volume 2, Background Synthesis on Age and Intersection Driving Difficulties · 1998 · Staplin, L. K. et al. · archived
47. Task analysis of intersection driving scenarios : information processing bottlenecks · 2006 · Richard, Christian M. et al. · archived
48. Gaze-eccentricity effects on automobile driving performance -- or -- Going where you look ↗ · 2010 · Readinger, W. O. et al. · indexed
49. Strategies of Visual Search by Novice and Experienced Drivers · 1972 · Mourant, Ronald R. et al. · archived
50. Selective searching while driving: the role of experience in hazard detection and general surveillance ↗ · 2002 · Underwood, Geoffrey et al. · indexed
51. Inattentional Blindness During Driving in Younger and Older Adults ↗ · 2019 · Saryazdi, Raheleh et al. · indexed
52. Naturalistic Driving Study for Understanding Human Error in Major Crash Types in Japan ↗ · 2009 · Uchida, Nobuyuki et al. · indexed
53. In-Vehicle Glance Duration ↗ · 2007 · Horrey, William J. et al. · indexed
54. What's Scene and Not Seen: Influences of Movement and Task Upon What We See ↗ · 2000 · Wallis, Guy et al. · indexed
55. Analysis of Naturalistic Driving Study Data: Safer Glances, Driver Inattention, and Crash Risk ↗ · 2014 · Victor, Trent et al. · indexed
56. Hazard perception performance and psychological factors of distracted drivers: what are the associations? ↗ · 2024 · Watling, Christopher N. et al. · indexed
57. Prioritizing improvements to truck driver vision. · 2006 · Reed, Matthew P. et al. · archived
58. Rapid holistic perception and evasion of road hazards · 2019 · Wolfe, Benjamin et al. · archived
59. Role of Peripheral Vision in Brake Reaction Time During Safety Critical Events ↗ · 2021 · Sarkar, Abhijit et al. · indexed
60. Driver Responses to Cyclists Crossing from Near and Far Side in Driving Simulator Experiments · 2022 · Zhao, Yuqing et al. · archived
61. Role of Monotonous Attention in Traffic Violations, Errors, and Accidents · 2001 · Sümer, Nebi et al. · archived
62. The 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study: A Descriptive Analysis of Light Vehicle-Heavy Vehicle Interactions from the Light Vehicle Driver's Perspective · 2006 · Hanowski, R. J. et al. · archived
63. An investigation of factors contributing to major crash types in Japan based on naturalistic driving data ↗ · 2010 · Uchida, Nobuyuki et al. · indexed
64. Baseline Analysis of Driver Performance at Intersections for the Left-Turn Assist and Intersection Movement Assist Applications · 2020 · Stevens, Scott et al. · archived
65. Calibration in Older and Middle-aged Drivers: Relationship between Subjective and Objective Glance Performance at Complex Intersections ↗ · 2018 · Unverricht, James et al. · indexed
66. Effect of Visual and Auditory Alerts on Older Drivers’ Glances toward Latent Hazards while Turning Left at Intersections ↗ · 2019 · Bakhtiari, Sarah et al. · indexed
67. Effectiveness of a time to fixate for fitness to drive evaluation in neurological patients · 2023 · Miljković, Nadica et al. · archived
68. Influence of Bicycle Rolling Stop Laws on Driver’s Visual Attention When Interacting with Bicycles at Stop Controlled Intersections ↗ · 2026 · Calderon, Emilio Ronaldo G. et al. · indexed
69. Integrated Hazard Displays: Individual Differences in Visual Scanning and Pilot Performance ↗ · 2006 · Wickens, C. D. · indexed
70. DRIVER INATTENTION ↗ · 2004 · Richard, TAY et al. · indexed
71. Crime blindness: The impact of inattentional blindness on eyewitness awareness, memory, and identification ↗ · 2022 · Wulff, Alia N. et al. · indexed
72. Direct gaze captures visuospatial attention ↗ · 2005 · Senju, Atsushi et al. · indexed
73. Seeing through eyes of Drivers: Space consideration in investigating visibility of Vulnerable road users involved in crashes ↗ · 2023 · Kutela, Boniphace et al. · indexed
74. Crime Blindness: How Selective Attention and Inattentional Blindness Can Disrupt Eyewitness Awareness and Memory ↗ · 2018 · Hyman, Ira E. et al. · indexed
75. Visual, Perceptual, and Cognitive Measures as Predictors of Collision Detection in Older Drivers ↗ · 1997 · James, Christina L. et al. · indexed
76. Inattentional blindness to unexpected hazard in augmented reality head-up display assisted driving: The impact of the relative position between stimulus and augmented graph ↗ · 2023 · Chen, Wanting et al. · indexed
77. Ich sehe was, was du nicht siehst ↗ · 2017 · Kreitz, Carina · indexed
78. Human Factors of Visual and Cognitive Performance in Driving · 2008 · Castro, Cándida · archived
79. Behavioural accident avoidance science: understanding response in collision incipient conditions ↗ · 2003 · HANCOCK, PA et al. · indexed
80. The Effect of Time Constraints on Older and Younger Driver Decisions to Turn at Intersections Using a Modified Change Blindness Paradigm · 2001 · Caird, Jeff K. et al. · archived
81. Evaluating the Effect of Google Glass on Driver Distraction · 2018 · Fisher, Donald L. et al. · archived
82. Hazard Perception in Driving: A Systematic Literature Review · 2022 · Cao, Shi et al. · archived
83. EXAMINATION OF INTERSECTION, LEFT TURN ACROSS PATH CRASHES AND POTENTIAL IVHS COUNTERMEASURES ↗ · 1994 · Chovan, J D et al. · indexed
84. Beyond the tangent point: Gaze targets in naturalistic driving ↗ · 2013 · Lappi, Otto et al. · indexed
85. Leveraging the Second Strategic Highway Research Program Naturalistic Driving Study: Examining Driver Behavior When Entering Rural High-Speed Intersections · 2017 · Jackson, Steven · archived
86. Drivers’ Decisions to Turn Across the Path of a Motorcycle with Low Beam Headlights ↗ · 2011 · Lenné, Michael G et al. · indexed
87. Gaze and steering strategies while driving around bends with shoulders · 2022 · Mecheri, Sami et al. · archived
88. How Blind is Inattentional Blindness in Mixed Hybrid search? ↗ · 2023 · Mitra, Ava et al. · indexed
89. Understanding cyclists’ perception of driverless vehicles through eye-tracking and interviews ↗ · 2024 · Berge, Siri Hegna et al. · indexed
90. The effect of drivers’ eye contact on pedestrians’ perceived safety ↗ · 2021 · Onkhar, V. et al. · indexed
91. Improved perception-reaction time information for intersection sight distance · 2002 · Hostetter, Robert S. et al. · archived
92. Optimize the Work Zone Safety with Spatial Information Technology and Eye Tracker · 2022 · Liu, Peng et al. · archived
93. Older Driver Failures of Attention at Intersections: Using Change Blindness Methods to Assess Turn Decision Accuracy ↗ · 2005 · Caird, Jeff K. et al. · indexed
94. Do Crashes and near Crashes in Simulator-Based Training Enhance Novice Drivers’ Visual Search for Latent Hazards? ↗ · 2011 · Vlakveld, Willem et al. · indexed
95. Using Simulation to Assess Conflicts Between Bicyclists and Right-Turning Vehicles · 2019 · Christofa, Eleni et al. · archived
96. Hazard Detection Prediction Model for Rural Roads Based on Hazard and Environment Properties · 2018 · Asadamraji, Morteza et al. · archived
97. Development of Looking Away Detection System for Bicycle Rider to Prevent Accidents 自転車事故防止のためのよそ見検知システムの開発 ↗ · 2025 · MITANI, Naoki et al. · indexed
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99. Visual attention problems as a predictor of vehicle crashes in older drivers. ↗ · 1993 · Ball, Karlene et al. · indexed
100. Curvilinear Approach to an Intersection and Visual Detection of a Collision ↗ · 1993 · Berthelon, Catherine et al. · indexed
101. A Study on the Relationships between Unsafe Driving Behaviors and Driver’s Inner Factors When Entering a Non-signalized Intersection ↗ · 2008 · Takemoto, Masanori et al. · indexed
102. THE EFFECT OF DRIVING EXPERIENCE ON DRIVER'S VISUAL ATTENTION. AN ANALYSIS OF OBJECTS LOOKED AT, USING THE VERBAL REPORT METHOD ↗ · 1980 · Renge, Kazumi · indexed
103. The Detection of Gaze Direction: A Stare-In-The-Crowd Effect ↗ · 1995 · von Grünau, Michael et al. · indexed
104. Driving Hazard Perception Tests: A Systematic Review. · 2023 · Omran, Yasaman Habibzadeh et al. · archived
105. Inference of large truck driver's intent to change lanes to pass a lead vehicle via analyses of driver's eye glance behavior in the real world ↗ · 2007 · Itoh, M. et al. · indexed
106. Vision-Based Traffic Conflict Detection of Signalized Intersections · 2018 · Sharma, Anuj · archived
107. Thinking and Seeing: Visual Metacognition in Adults and Children, Daniel T.Levin, ed. The MIT Press, 2004. $35.00. ↗ · 2005 · Sedgwick, H. A. · indexed
108. EXAMINATION OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTION, STRAIGHT CROSSING PATH CRASHES AND POTENTIAL IVHS COUNTERMEASURES. FINAL REPORT ↗ · 1994 · Chovan, J D et al. · indexed
109. Eye-tracking metrics for estimating workload and characterizing errors in conflict detection and resolution during simulated en route air-traffic control · 2025 · Navia, José A. et al. · archived
110. Driver Gaze Tracking and Eyes Off the Road Detection System ↗ · 2015 · Vicente, Francisco et al. · indexed
111. Gaze Supervision for Mitigating Causal Confusion in Driving Agents · 2024 · Biswas, Abhijat et al. · archived
112. The effects of task difficulty on gaze behaviour during landing with visual flight rules in low-time pilots · 2023 · Ayala, Naila et al. · archived
113. A study of precrash factors involved in traffic accidents ↗ · 1980 · Treat, J R · indexed
114. Pedestrian Interaction with Vehicles ↗ · 2017 · Dey, Debargha et al. · indexed
115. Driver attitudes and behaviors at intersections and potential effectiveness of engineering countermeasures · 2005 · Richard, Christian M. et al. · archived
116. TRI-LEVEL STUDY OF THE CAUSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS. VOLUME I: CASUAL FACTOR TABULATIONS AND ASSESSMENTS ↗ · 1977 · Treat, J R et al. · indexed
117. Age Effects on Inattentional Blindness: Implications for Driving · 2016 · Stothart, Cary et al. · archived
118. Mirror-based perception: are male drivers accurately estimating the distance and speed of motorized two-wheelers? ↗ · 2026 · Barat, Anik et al. · indexed
119. Driver Behavior at Malfunctioning Crossing and Emergency Notification System Sign Awareness · 2021 · Young, Jared et al. · archived
120. Evaluation of Intelligent School Zone Beacon and Vehicle-Cyclist Detection and Warning System · 2020 · Jain, Eakta et al. · archived
121. Stopping by looking: A driver-pedestrian interaction study in a coupled simulator using head-mounted displays with eye-tracking ↗ · 2022 · Mok, Chun Sang et al. · indexed
122. Are failures to look, to represent, or to learn associated with change blindness during screen-capture video learning? · 2018 · Levin, Daniel T. et al. · archived
123. Owl and Lizard: Patterns of Head Pose and Eye Pose in Driver Gaze Classification · 2015 · Fridman, Lex et al. · archived
124. Eyes on the Approach: Eye Tracking Analysis of Pilot Scan Discipline During Simulated Instrument Landing System Approaches and Implications for Safety ETRA023 ↗ · 2026 · Fu, Bo · indexed
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127. Inattentional blindness in psychotherapy · 2006 · Varvogli, Liza · archived
128. Inattentional blindness in psychotherapy · 2006 · Liza, Varvogli · archived
129. Impact of Different Infrastructures and Traffic Scenarios on Behavioral and Physiological Responses of E-scooter Users · 2024 · Heydarian, Arsalan · archived
130. Verification of the Change Blindness Phenomenon While Managing Critical Events on a Combat Information Display ↗ · 2004 · DiVita, Joseph et al. · indexed
131. I Thought I Saw “Zorro”: An Inattentional Blindness Study ↗ · 2017 · Oktay, Bahadir et al. · indexed
132. Influencing Factors on Conflicts of Turning Vehicles and Pedestrians at Intersections · 2015 · Xu, Hao et al. · archived
133. Motorcycle Safety and Intelligent Transportation Systems Gap Analysis, Final Report · 2018 · Flanigan, Erin et al. · archived
134. Investigating the role of flight phase and task difficulty on low-time pilot performance, gaze dynamics and subjective situation awareness during simulated flight · 2024 · Ayala, Naila et al. · archived
135. Mental and physical fatigue altered working memory consolidation and impaired gaze behavior and perceptual-cognitive skills using video-based and real-situation · 2026 · Farahani, Faezeh Khoshdouni et al. · archived
136. Probabilistic Risk Metrics for Navigating Occluded Intersections ↗ · 2019 · McGill, Stephen G. et al. · indexed
137. Visual Search for Human Gaze Direction by a Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) · 2010 · Tomonaga, Masaki et al. · archived
138. Gaze-contingent display technology can help to reduce the ipsilesional attention bias in hemispatial neglect following stroke · 2022 · Bode, Lisa Kunkel genannt et al. · archived
139. Eye remember you two: gaze direction modulates face recognition in a developmental study ↗ · 2006 · Smith, Alastair D. et al. · indexed
140. Is the reversed congruency effect unique to the eye-gaze? Investigating the effects of finger pointing, eye-gaze and arrows stimuli on spatial interference · 2023 · Bonventre, Sofia et al. · archived
141. Unwanted reflex-like saccades in visual extinction patients ↗ · 1999 · Fanini, Alessandra et al. · indexed
142. Callous–Unemotional Traits and Their Association with Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Insights from Gaze Behaviour During Emotion Recognition ↗ · 2026 · Martinez-Cedillo, Astrid Priscilla et al. · indexed